By Philip Thanglienmang
Christianity's Tryst With Northeast's Melting Pot of Cultures: Part I
Christianity's Tryst With Northeast's Melting Pot of Cultures: Part I
In an exclusive four-part series, Philip Thanglienmang unravels how Catholic Church evolved in Northeastern India, home to hundreds of ethnic groups and diverse cultures.
Part I:
Christianity and Manipur’s Zo People
Northeastern India is known as a melting pot of cultures since hundreds of ethnic groups live in that region.One of them is the Zos, a Tibeto-Burman ethnic group. They inhabit Manipur in India and Chin Hills of Myanmar. Colonial civil servants and modern writers have recorded them in various names such as Yo, Jou and Zou.
The earliest and the most genuine records of the Zos have come from Fr. Vincentious Sangermano, a Catholic missionary who came to Burma in 1783. He wrote a book, “A Description of the Burmese Empire,” that was published in Latin at Rome in 1835.
Later, William Tandy translated it into English. It was reprinted at the Government Press, Yangon.
An extracts from the book: “To the east of Chien Mountains between 20º 30' and 21º 30’ North latitude is a petty nation called JOU. They are supposed to have been Chein, who in progress of time, have become Burmaniszed, speaking their language, although very corruptly, and adopting all their customs.”
Other authors on Zos are Betram S. Carey, Burma’s former assistant commissioner, and political officer in Chin Hills and his assisant H.N. Tuck. They wrote "The Chin Hills" in which they describe the Zos as:
“The Yos tribe three generations back occupied the tract now occupied by the Kanhow clan of Soktes, and many of the Kanhow villages are inhabited still by Yos, whose tribal name has given way to that of Kanhow. As has been shown in the previous chapter, Kantum, the Sokte, conquered all the inhabitants right up to the borders of Manipur, and Kanhow, his also founded Tiddim village and ruled the newly acquired conquests of his father. The conquered Yos thus came to be known as Kanhowte, Kanhow’s men, and as they inter-married with the Soktes who settled north with Kanhow, there is no real difference between the conquerors and the conquered.” (Volume I page 140)
Zo Migration
Thousands of Zos have left the Chin Hills since the early 19th century. It was not the dream of a promised land, but their conflicts with the Sokte that drove Zos out of their original settlement and brought them over to India.The CareyTuck book says:"The Yos either migrated north out of the Sokte's reach or quietly submitted...." (Volume I Page 119):
Interviews with some Zo elders have made me conclude that Zos underwent three waves of migrations into British India (Manipur) from British Burma (Chin Hills).
The first period began in 1800 and lasted 50 years.
The second period began in 1860 and ended in 1900.
The third period started 20 years later and ended in 1947, when India won its independence from the British.
The first period happened when the Shans, another ethnic group, attacked Zo kingdoms that flourished in the northern Burma hills since the 17th century. Many Zos lost their original culture, language and customs and they got acculturated into the community in which they took shelter. They adopted the customs and traditions of the chiefs who protected them.
The second period may be called the British or (Poite and Sokte combined allies) Period.
The Zo kingdoms were unaware of the British ascendance in India and Burma. With the British came modern weapons. Guns replaced the Zos’ traditional weapons such as sword, spear, bow and arrow. But the Zos were unprepared for this gun culture.At that time, a certain man in Khanthuom, Kamhau, gathered many followers and allied with the Pois. He became a powerful force in the Chin Hills. He raided Zo villages and imposed levies on them. Later, he collaborated with the British to subdue the Zos, who resisted him in the Chin Hills. Kamhau’s heavy levies and taxes upset Zo chiefs and villagers. Instead of paying the taxes, most of them grudgingly left for the British India. They crossed the porous borders and settled down in the no man's land. Most of the present Zo villages in Churachandpur and Chandel districts owe their origin to this era of migration. The Pois used to attack and killed them. They also carried away children and women as slaves. Some captives returned after several years. However, the majority never returned. Perhaps they were absorbed into their invaders’ culture. In 1889, the Pois attacked the Zo villages in Senam. The Zos fought back bravely with their thâu (muzzle-loading guns) and repulsed the attack. Three years later, the Pois raided Senam (Sinnum) village in retaliation. The Zos fought back bravely, but lost the battle. The invaders ransacked the Zo villages and killed many. They carried away 55 people, including children and pregnant women. I was told that after seven years, five boys and two women returned. Carey and Tuck have recorded this in their book (Vol.I.Page 55).
The third period came during the Second World War.
The period saw many upheavals in the Zo villages that had far-reaching consequence in their society. One of the positive fallouts of the war was that it brought employment to sturdy and able-bodied Zo youth. Another was the introduction of Christianity to their community.
Employment
The British went on a recruiting spree to reinforce their forces to fight the Axis Power in the South East Asia and eastern sector of British India. Many Zo youth left their villages to join the British Indian Army, initially the Assam Rifles and later the Assam Regiment that was based in Shillong. The Second World War provided the Zo youth an opportunity to show their bravery and valor. Many of them brought laurels to their society. Some rose to the rank of subedar.In those days, the army was the only avenue of employment. The villagers respected and feared the soldiers, who, the village belles considered as heroes. Pu. Thanghêm Tungdim of Muolnuom village received the British government’s prestigious Military Cross for his gallantries in the war. After retirement, he founded the present Muolnuom village in 1950s. Similarly, soldiers such as Pu.Elzapâu founded Gêlngâi village, Pu. Lienzathang Taithul founded Singtom village, Pu.Genchinthang Mate founded Tuibuong village, Pu.Zâmmâng founded Sugnu Lamhang village, and Pu.Thangkhokam Tungdim established Langphun village and several other ex-service men became village chiefs.
Religious Beliefs, Customs That Helped Church Grow In Northeast: Part II
In this second part on Christianity in Northeast India, Philip Thanglienmang provides a fascinating account of the various religious beliefs and customs of the Zo tribals in Manipur. Ancient Beliefs
To understand the background of conversions among the Zos we have to study their religious faith before 1950s. Many anthropologists and monographers have classified their religious beliefs as animism or at the most ancestor worship. But I would prefer to classify it as polytheism. Their ancient religion may be called Lawki or its anglicized form, Lawkism.
God
In those days the Zos worshipped one omnipotent, almighty God called Pasien as well as their great ancestor known as Pusha/Pusa and the underworld spirit called Zînmâng. They believed that a great spirit created the heavens and earth and all things in them. This spirit is called Pasien, which literally means God. The Church now uses same term to refer to God.Below God exists a less powerful spirit known as Lungzai/Lungzei ;who may be considered as the assistant or brother of Pasien. It is slightly less powerful than God.
To corroborate the relationship between the two great spirits let me narrate a scene of the Nântal-Neino mythology. Nântal and Neinou are two mythological characters who arrive at a mount at the sunset. A lion (Hûmpi) was was lying in wait for them on the other side of hillock where the two rested. God and his assistant, or Pasien and Lungzai, saw the situation. God asked Lungzai, “Brother, who do you think we should support and save, man or lion? Lungzai replied, “Behold, whenever the lion kills an animal it never gives thanks to us before having the meat. Whereas, whenever man is about to eat he always says ‘May my God be pleased; may my Lungzai be pleased.’ Therefore, it is befitting that we support and save man. "The lion had a magical power to transform itself into any animal and so it turned into a bee. It then hovered above its prey, Nântal. Pasien and Lungzai asked Nântal to slash the bee with his sword. Nântal obeyed, and immediately cut the bee into two and killed the lion.
Spirits
The Zos also believed in an underworld spirit that inhabit a dark underworld kingdom they call Zîn or Zînmâng. This underworld spirit causes various illness and pestilence. It also brings sorrow and death. Various Zou poems mention the fear of this spirit. One may define the spirit as the demon or the evil one that has to be appeased through incantations and offerings of animals and birds.
Ancestor Worship
Every clan or house has their own pusa that is placated and appeased during festivals. In every house, the central column or pillar is used as an altar to offer food and drinks to the ancestors. This pillar is called Sûtpi or Sûtzung. The act or worshipping them is called Sûtzung Biehna, in which the family implores the ancestor to bless the house or clan in with health, harvest and wealth. The names of their forefathers were recited on these occasions.Abode Of DeadsThen, comes the soul or ‘Ha” or “kha’ that exists even after a person dies. Sometimes some wicked person's soul lingers on and haunt or terrorize its loved ones. This wicked soul is called Sihla or Thadam. A good soul first goes to land of the death known as Mishikhuo before entering the heaven.Heaven And Female DragonBefore the different levels of heavens, a soul has to face Gulsamnu, the female dragon who guards the heaven’s gate with her fiery tongues and swords. She taunts or teases souls that had not killed an animal when they were on the earth. She subjects them to torture and misery. Those with many kills to their credit are let in easily. Then, the soul has to cross over a great river before reaching Piêugâl, which literally means the other side of the riverbank. From there, the soul proceeds to different heavens, according to the merit and wealth one accumulates during one life on earth.Heaven (Vângam) Heaven is considered to be a very beautiful and joyous place where the good people go after their death. Here, Zînmâng does not trouble them. Zos have no concept of hell. They believe the heavens have layers or “van,” called, Thangvân, Lêngvân or Vâivân and Mîmvân.
Thangvân
This is the highest layer of heaven and the most blissful place. It is the paradise. Here, the spirits of the good people take their final rest. The land of the dead i.e. abode of the dead called Mishikhuo also known as Pieugâl gam.
Lêngvân
This middle layer is not as blissful as Thangvân. Here, the spirit of a person who was killed by the enemy’s sword or the evil spirits of dead people is placed for further cleansing. The spirit lingers here until his killing is avenged. Then, it proceeds to Mishikhuo. This layer is also called Sâshikhuo and it is akin to limbo or purgatory.
A third name for layer is Vâivân. The soul possessed by an evil- (kâunei) remains here forever.
Mîmvân
This is the lowest layer where the spirits of dead animals and birds reach. Zos believe all animals and birds possess some sort of a soul, which reach the heaven’s lowest layer after death.Sacrificial ObjectsZos also practised many magic and witchcrafts to appease the evil spirits. The practice is known as kithoina, or sacrifice. The sacrificial items were animals such as dog, mithun, buffaloes, chicken and pig. Fermented or brewed-rice liquor called Zu was a mandatory drink in all those occasions. It is a drink for man, spirit and God. It is said that Zo and Zu were born together.
Advent Of Catholic Church In Northeast: Part III
In this third part on Christianity in Northeast India, Philip Thanglienmang tells the inside story of how Catholic Church grew in the remote villages and tribal settlements of Northeast.
Advent Of Catholicism
In the beginning of the World War II, one Thangchinlâng Peter of Khienglâm in Burma became a Catholic after he heard catechist Ungmen preach in Langphun village. In 1944, he migrated to Kathuong, a village near Sajiktampak in India. He converted one Gouchinthang, who helped him in his tour of the villages in Manipur and Burma. He had to suffer many hardships, persecution and ridicule from the people of Lonpi and Goboh. He was arrested, scourged, scorned and was tied to a cross and left to the mercies of nature.It is said a woman saved him.Further stories about him are obscure. Catechist Haokhokham Tungdim of Langphun village was instrumental in converting the whole village of Langphun in Burma (now Myanmar). He came to Muollien village to preach in 1945. He visited another village, Gêlngâi. Lucas Khamchinkhup Zo an immigrant from the Chin Hills also preached in several villages.The people moved in groups of few families and settled down in the Zo villages of British India. During the Second World War some Catholic families had come from Khiengkân, Phâitu, Khampat, Dênlha, Senam in the Chin Hills to Kathuong, Senam, Thingkângphâi, Langphun, Gêlngâi in the Chandel (then Tengnoupal) district of British India. But elders say the shifting was a sporadic migration at different times. The Zos had been living around the valley of the Kana River and on the Letha mountains since 19th century. Mângzakhup, chief of Khuongtal village, had already heard about the Jesus Christ and his teachings from American Baptist Missionaries in the early 1920s. They came to the village to preach. The chief was staunch supporter of his forefathers' religious beliefs. He refused to accept their teachings when told him to give up drinking Zu, fermented or brewed rice liquor, to accept Jesus as his new God.He was my maternal grand father. According to my mother, her father asked how one could forgo staple food and drinks to follow a new God since God has given food and drinks for human existence. He could not understand the concept of abstinence from Zu and at the same time be a worshipper of God. The concept of offering food and drinks to God already existed in the Zos’ religion, in their ancestor worship known as Pusha Biehna.About the same time some missionaries came to Khuongtal to open a village school. Sensing rebellions over the mission education he ordered the missionaries to discontinue their work and leave the village immediately. My late father Thangkhokâm told me that in mid 1930s, some Christian followers of the American Baptist Mission lived in Paldâi and Sajiktampak (Sachih) Zo villages. He and my uncle Pu Lângpum heard about a mission school run by the American Baptist Mission in Paldâi village. They were very eager to go to that school, and so, they worked hard in the jhum fields to earn money for their schooling. They used to walk for almost 30 kilometers from Khuongtal to Paldâi to study.When they were on their way to Ahumsuba (Class III Manipuri and English) their teacher from Salluk near Chakpikarong became pregnant and stopped coming to the school. So, after three months, they were compelled to stop their schooling. Fr. RavalicoAround 1951, the Zos of Singtom village learnt about the Catholic faith from Lucas Khamchinkhup Zo. On hearing that some Catholics lived in Singtom village Fr. Ravalico went there. He celebrated the first Mass there on Aug. 15, 1953. He also baptised some catechumens. Fr. Ravalico appointed Lucas Khamchinkhup as catechist with a salary of 250 rupees a month. During his stay at Singtom many people surrounding villages invited the priest.On Oct. 15, 1953, Fr. Ravalico reached Purumtampak and baptised 10 children. This was the first baptism in the Chothe community. The next day accompanied by Lucas Khamchinkhup, Father Ravalico left for Zo villages of Singtom and Muolnuom. After long and tedious journey by foot, traversing through the hills and high mountainous forests they reached at sunset Gêlngâi, the first village on the banks of River Kana.The headman welcomed him cordially. The next morning was Mission Sunday and the priest baptised the catechumens. He left Gêlngâi village two days later for Muollien. He climbed the steep and ravenous mountains with the help of two young men. The people welcomed the priest and offered him the best possible hospitality. A delighted Father Ravalico baptised 35 catechumens the next day.On Oct. 19, he reached Kholien where he baptised 26 people. The following day, he reached Kathuong, a Zo villager. He baptised 49 persons there. On Oct. 22, they set out for the last leg of their tour in the Zo area. They passed through Muolnuom, Sielkûi and Zângdung villages. Their final destination was Khuongtal on the Burma border.The headman of that village was Mângzakhup who was my maternal grandfather. My late mother, the chief’s youngest daughter, told me that the Catholic priest received warm welcome. They threw a great feast in the priest’s honor in which all the villagers took active part. The whole village danced with Fr. Ravalico enjoying the traditional drink Zu, brewed-rice liquor. Fr. Ravalico and the headman had lengthy discussions about the Catholic faith. The priest spoke of Jesus as the new God and his teachings. On hearing the same name of Jesus, the headman expressed his reservations about the new God and his teachings. But in the end, he said that he could not forsake his traditional drink Zu and certain customs of his ancestors. Fr. Ravalico did not insist on this particular cultural item of Zu. He only exhorted him to become a Catholic. Finally, the chief agreed to become a Catholic provided he was allowed to continue the practice of drinking Zu. The priest neither insisted the chief give up the practice nor encouraged him to continue it. So, the headman became a Catholic. All his kith and kin followed him. The priest baptised 35 persons. The headman and Fr. Ravalico had a photo session near the village memorial stone called Nuomman Muol. The priest left Khuongtal village after a five-day stay and headed for Singtom, where they reached after two days of tedious and weary journey. They stayed at the headman’s house. The next day Fr. Ravalico visited the villages of Senam-Singkângphâi and Langphun and baptised about a dozen people. From Singtom he went to Imphal and then to Dibrugarh. He took several Zo boys and girls wit him to educate them. He halted at Singtom a second time when he visited Manipur in December. He was on his way to the Thangkâi area inhabited by Kukis. Accompanied by catechists Marcus Nonkholun and Lucas Khamchinkhup he visited Lonpi, Semol, Chalzang, Changpol, Chalson, Ch. Tengnoupal, Moltuh and baptised many people.
The Blossoming of Catholic Church In Manipur: Part IV
In this fourth and concluding part on Christianity and Northeast India, Philip Thanglienmang glimpses through some of the rare incidents that helped blossom the Catholic Church in Northeast.
First Catholic Congress 1959
The first Catholic Congress was held Feb. 13-15, 1959 at Purumtampak, a Chothe village in the then Tengnoupal District near Sugnu. Although the village had only a few Catholics, they fed about 700 people for three days. Fathers G. Venturoli and Joseph Mattam were stationed at Purumtampak village. Delegates from various tribes attended the Congress enthusiastically. There were Zos, Thadous (Kukis), Hmars, Paites, Moyons, anal, Lamkand and Chothes.They had rains on the first night. On the second day there were variety entertainments and competitions followed by a lengthy speech by Fr. Venturoli. In the evening, Fr. Wollaston came from Imphal. Next afternoon, the village held a Eucharistic procession in the afternoon. It was closed with a Mass where Father Mattam preached.
The second Catholic Congress was held at Mitong Khunkha in 1961. About 400 people from various tribes attended it.Sugnu Centre.In 1958, Fr. Mattam started visiting Sugnu from his base at Nirmalabas, Imphal. He used to tour hilly areas of Sugnu, Singtom, Purumtampak, Liwachangning, Komlathabi and Lonpi, Joupi, Wayang, Changpol of Thângkâi areas bordering Burma, Sumchinvûm and Singngât of the then South District, inhabited by the Moyons, Lamkang, Monshangs, Chothe, Chiru, Anals, Zous and Kukis. Fr. Ravalico chose some young boys from among the hills whom he sent to Dibrugarh for schooling and priestly training. Prominent among them were M. Linus Lienkhohau, Fr. Peter Haokip, Fr. Dominic Lumon, Fr. Ngamkhochung, Pu. Aloysius Nêhkhojang Tungdim, John Thangzalet, John Zamkhomâng, Stephen Semkholun and John Kâmmâng.During 1962-1963, a primary functioned at the present convent on the banks of Imphal river. The Sugnu parish was opened on Aug. 15, 1964, after the name of St. Joseph with Fr. Joseph Kachiramattam as the first parish priest. He started St. Joseph’s School in 1966 in a makeshift shed near the present Alphonsa Convent.Fr. Mattam approached the Catholic community of Sugnu, who willingly donated the required land for the Sugnu Centre. Lienkhohau played a key role in acquiring the parish land.Fr. K.C. George. Ill health forced Fr. Mattam to leave the place. Fr. K.C. George succeeded him in 1967. The same year, the new priest built the present school and other buildings on the land Sugnu Catholic Community donated. The following year, he started St. Joseph’s Boarding with some 30 children from nearby villages.There were no fulltime-trained pastors for the whole of Sugnu area. Local catechists helped. Laypersons like Lucas Khamchinkhup, John Vumkham, John Huotpau, Thaddeus Thangchinlang Marcus Nonkholun, Barnabbas Langchinkhup and John Ngulkhothang took active part to spread the Word of God in Sugnu parish.Before he left the mission, Fr. George upgraded St.J oseph’s School to upper primary.
Fr. Mathew Manianchira
After Fr. K.C George, a young energetic, hardworking and modernised priest, Fr. Mathew Manianchira, came to the parish. He was a practical and down-to-earth person. Many called him a people’s priest. He worked for the welfare of his parishioners so much so, that even today people fondly remember him.From 1970 onwards there were Church leaders in the Sugnu Local Church. The first Church leaders of Sugnu were Sub. Peter Thangkhokâm and Sub. Lawrence Langpum. They served the church from 1970-1977. During their tenure, the church plot was bought at I.B. Hills at Sugnu Lamhang. Under their initiative the construction of the first local church started in 1973. The work progressed under the guidance of Father Manianchira who arrived in the same year. His assistant was Fr. M.C John. The new church was blessed on March 23, 1974 by Bishop Abraham. The church was named “Mary Help of Christians Church.” A grand community feast marked the day. People drank the traditional brewed-rice liquor; Zu. The bishop, the chief guest, and people danced to the beats of the drum throughout the day. Even today, the people of Sugnu parish cherished that day. Those days, Samuel Khamzakhup, a young catechist, played a key role to publish various Catholic hymn books and prayer books in Zo language. Father John guided him. Fr. Mathew sent several young men to Dibrugarh for studies and further priestly training. I was among those chosen people. Before we left, the priest called us to his office and said, “Go and study well, and try to become somebody someday, never mind if you can not make it to the priestly goal".
Sources: Primary Source: Oral interviews of by the author.
Secondary Sources: The Herald of Jesus Christ by Fr. Ravalico SDB. The History of Catholic Church in Manipur by Fr. Jayaseelan.] Concluded-------------------------------------
--Philip Thanglienmang belongs to the IAS allied Service of the Delhi Andaman & Nicobar Islands Civil Service(DANICS). He is at present the Executive Magistrate, New Delhi District.
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Source: http://www.theindiancatholic.com/archives_details.asp?dte=12/2004 [Dated 8th Dec 2004 Articles I, II, III, IV]
This article is copyrighted. Violation of this copyright may lead you to a serious consequences.
Source: http://www.theindiancatholic.com/archives_details.asp?dte=12/2004 [Dated 8th Dec 2004 Articles I, II, III, IV]
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